Origins of Mahayana Buddhism (part 2).VIETNAMESE TRANSLATE ENGLISH BY=VIETNAMESE BUDDHIST NUN=THICH CHAN TANH. PHKH - All biographical works have some sort of similar event. The first is the prediction (vyākaraṇa) of Buddha Dīpaṅkara (Natural Light) that the future Shakyamuni will indeed succeed in his quest for Buddhahood. The stories begin with the record that the future Sakyamuni was then a young Brahmin. The texts differ in his name, among which the names given are Sumati, Sumedha and Megha. Regardless of the name, later biographies all begin with a past Buddha foreshadowing the future Sakyamuni's eventual attainment of enlightenment. The stories behind the prophecy are also different. According to some versions, the prophecy occurred when the young brahmin offered five flowers that he had bought from a woman to the Buddha Dīpaṅkara. According to other versions, while watching the Buddha Dīpaṅkara approach in a procession, the young man noticed that there was a puddle of mud lying in the path of Buddha Dīpaṅkara. The young man quickly loosened his long hair and spread it across the mud so that Dīpaṅkara Buddha's feet would not be dirty. Buddha Dīpaṅkara then prophesied that the young man would eventually attain enlightenment and the future Sakyamuni responded by vowing that he would surely achieve it. Apparently, these stories of Buddha Dīpaṅkara's prophecy were widely circulated among the Buddha's biographers. Predictions of Buddhahood are an important element of Mahayana thought. Buddha Dīpaṅkara's prediction of Shakyamuni's attainment of Buddhahood is mentioned frequently in the Mahayana sutras. Finally questions were raised regarding the practices that the future Shakyamuni Buddha did before he received the prediction of Buddha Dīpaṅkara. The biography of the Buddha is thus expanded to finally include his practices during the three aeons. According to these scriptures, after receiving the prediction of Buddha Dīpaṅkara, the future Buddha practiced the six perfections. Those who are so concerned with the facts and practices that lead to enlightenment, naturally, think that a future Buddha practices different practices from those for whom they aspire to be an arahant. - Han or Bich Chi Buddha. The descriptions of the six perfections were first developed by biographers of the Buddha to describe the specific practices of a future Buddha. The list of thirteen perfections in the introduction (nidāna-kathā) of Jātaka Pāli may be a later development of the six perfections. According to the Great Abhidhamma (T 27:892b-c), the doctrines of both the four perfections and the six perfections were advocated by the Sarvāstivāda thinkers, with the doctrine of the last four perfections declared as orthodox in the Sarvāstivāda. The biographical works of the Buddha, without exception, all list six perfections, and this list of six perfections is incorporated into the Mahayana scriptures. Authors of such biographies of the Buddha have devised six paramitas to describe the practices that will lead to Buddhahood, practices that differ considerably from those practiced by other Buddhas. follow the Buddha. These thinkers are also concerned with the ten stages of practice through which a bodhisattva sets out on his or her path to Buddhahood. In some biographical works, the following fixed passage appears: “He attained the ten stages (decade). There was only one more life left before he attained Buddhahood. He is about to attain omniscience.” (For example, see Past Present Causality, T3:623a). The ten stages are explained in detail only in the Mahāvastu. However, other biographical works often have the phrase "He attained ten stages". Even though other biographical works do not have detailed explanations of the ten periods, the authors of biographical works clearly know about ten periods. Such writers generally believe that a Bodhisattva passes through ten stages and eventually reaches a position from which he will be reborn and attain Buddhahood in the next life. The teachings of these ten stages were later used in the Mahayana sutras. The notion that a bodhisattva can attain a stage from which one more birth is required to attain Buddhahood (eka-jāti-pratibaddha) also applies to Maitreya. . Determining that this view first arose in connection with Shakyamuni or with Maitreya is difficult to prove. The notion that a bodhisattva can attain a stage from which one more birth is required to attain Buddhahood (eka-jāti-pratibaddha) also applies to Maitreya. . Determining that this view first arose in connection with Shakyamuni or with Maitreya is difficult to prove. The notion that a bodhisattva can attain a stage from which one more birth is required to attain Buddhahood (eka-jāti-pratibaddha) also applies to Maitreya. . Determining that this view first arose in connection with Shakyamuni or with Maitreya is difficult to prove. Other important points regarding the biographical works of the Buddha can be made, but the above discussion has demonstrated the specific features of this Buddhist literary genre. Many of the doctrines found in this literary source later appeared in the Mahayana scriptures. For example, the story of how the future Shakyamuni Buddha descended from the Tuṣta heaven, took the form of a white elephant, and entered the womb of queen Maya could be developed by biographers, as a catalog of eight pivotal events in the life of a Buddha (birth from the heaven of Tuṣita, entry into a mother's womb, birth, renunciation, subjugation of the demon army they symbolized for defilements, attain enlightenment, preach, and pass away). Many similarities can be pointed out between the works written on the biography of the Buddha and the Mahayana scriptures. However, the fundamental differences between the two types of literature cannot be ignored. Biographical works of the Buddha study the background of an individual who has been recognized as a Buddha. The bodhisattva discussed in these biographies received prophecy (vyākaraṇa) of his eventual Buddhahood and thus assured his quest for success. In biographical works such as the Mahāvastu, the possibility of multiple Buddhas appearing in the world at once is acknowledged. Therefore, many bodhisattvas, all of whom are guaranteed to eventually attain buddhahood, must be present. In contrast, the bodhisattva is depicted in many Mahayana scriptures as merely someone who aspires to attain enlightenment. His final enlightenment is not guaranteed. He does not receive a prediction that he will eventually attain enlightenment, and he may even fail his practice. He is an ordinary Bodhisattva. Of course, great Bodhisattvas (who are no longer depraved and do other evil deeds) such as Samantabhadra, Manjushri (Mañjuśrī), Avalokiteshvara (Valokiteśvara) and Maitreya (Maitreya) are also mentioned in the Mahayana scriptures along with unknown and ordinary practitioners of Mahayana Buddhism who consider themselves a bodhisattva. The question of what causes ordinary Buddhist practitioners to consider them bodhisattvas remains to be answered. Since so much of the praise paid to the Buddha in biographical works does not explain this development, another explanation must be sought. Thus, although the similarities between the biographical works of the Buddha and the Mahayana scriptures are present, fundamental differences are also present. Jataka and Avadana Closely related to the biographical works of the Buddha are the Jātaka (stories about the Buddha's predecessors) and Avandāna (P. Apadāna, teaching stories related to the Buddha). In fact, the full title of Mahāvastu is Mahāvastu-avadāna. The difference between the terms “Jātaka” and “Avadāna” is difficult to distinguish, partly because the meaning of the word “avadāna” has changed over the long period in which the genre of stories is told. Both Jātaka and Avadāna are mentioned in the twelve chapters of Buddhist literature, suggesting that they are considered literary genres that were present early in the history of Buddhism. Among the Nikāyas there are some texts, such as the Mahāpadānasuttanta, that incorporate the word apadāna in their titles. In the context of the twelve sects of Buddhist literary genres, the term "avdāna" can often be interpreted as an allegory.11 About after the contents of the A-functions were fixed, new Avadanas were compiled independently. The Apadāna Pāli, a work of the Khuddhaka-nikāya, represents this development. Later, many Avadana stories were compiled and this literary genre prevailed. However, many details of the compilation process remain unclear. Many works classified as Avadāna survive today. Many of these texts date back to the early AD. Besides the Mahāvastu, works in Sanskrit such as Avadānaśataka (ref. T 200), Divyāvadāna, and Sumāgadhāvadāna (ref. T 128-129) and others have been published. In addition, many later Avadana works are still present, but not published.12 These unpublished works were compiled over a period of several centuries and are primarily mythological. They differ from the earlier Avadāta literary sources in this respect. The Jātaka stories are included in both the nine-sect and the twelve-sect classification of Buddhist literature, indicating that they were formed early as an independent Buddhist literary genre in the history of Buddhism. The Jātaka stories are among the themes found in the inscriptions at Bharhut, with twelve such stories identified in the Bharhut inscriptions.13 Thus, in the 2nd century B.C. , several stories have been composed. In the following centuries, more stories were formed. The Jātaka stories are presented as predecessors of the Buddha. But the source material for the stories is often taken from Indian folk tales and fables. The content is usually close to that found in Avadāna literature. Pāli Jataka, consists of 547 stories and is named after the genre it summarizes. A five-volume translation (T 154) of this work is available. In addition, many important works including the Jātaka stories are still extant, namely the Great Dignity of the Buddha (Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā*, T 201), Avadānaśataka, Divyāvadāna, Buddha of the Five Hundred Disciples Self-Teaching the Origin of the Sutta (T 199 ), Bodhisattva's original practice of the Sutra (Bodhisattvapūrvacarya?, T 155), and Sangha-ra-satellite practice of the Sutra (T 194). The Six Degrees of Discourse (Ṣaṭpāramitāsaṅgraha?, T 152), and the Bodhisattva Vow Sutras (Boddhisattvāvadāna?, T 153) include revised Jātaka stories to illustrate Mahāyāna themes. The Jātaka stories quoted in the Mahayana treatise (Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa, T 1509) show the salient features of the Mahayana. Therefore, Some scholars argue that the Jātaka stories contributed significantly to the development of Mahayana thought. However, the Six Degrees of Sutra (Ṣaṭpāramitāsaṅgraha?, T 152) includes parts composed after the Prajnaparamita Suttas. Great care must be taken in determining whether the "Mahayana Jātaka stories" were composed before or after the early Mahayana texts. It is difficult to draw sharp distinctions between the biographical genres of the Buddha, such as the Jātakas and the Avadānas. The authors of this literary genre must have played an important role in the early development of Mahayana thought. It reveals how these people lived, where they lived, and what kind of relationships they had. The answers to these questions will greatly contribute to our understanding of the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism. Unfortunately, the available literature does not shed light on these questions to find answers. Some of these parables and metaphors are called upama. They are found in such works as the Hundred Parables (T 209) and the Wise Fools (Damamūkanidānasūtra, T 202). Since the time of the Buddha, Buddhists have used parables and metaphors to explain their teachings. The stories used by the Dārṣṭāntikas (whom they explain the Buddhadharma using parables and metaphors) may belong to this tradition. Many of the doctrines taught by the Dārṣṭāntikas are quoted or expounded in the Great Abhidhamma (T 1545). The Dārṣṭāntikas are said to be the predecessors of the Sautrāntikas, but the validity of this claim is disputed.14 One of the most famous Dārṣṭāntikas is the Kumāralāta, the author of many works. Although he is said to be a contemporary of Nāgārjuna, he is not mentioned in the Mahāvibhāṣā. Instead, his poems are cited in the Truthfulness (Tattvasiddhiśāstra?,T 1646,).15 Thus, he probably lived between the time of the compilation of Mahāvibhāṣā and Tattvasiddhiśāstra. A Sanskrit fragment of a work attributed to him, the Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā, was discovered in Central Asia. However, a translation of this work (T 201), which is close to the Sanskrit passage, is attributed to Aśvaghoṣa. Modern scholars still disagree on the authorship of this text.16 A Sanskrit fragment of a work attributed to him, the Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā, was discovered in Central Asia. However, a translation of this work (T 201), which is close to the Sanskrit passage, is attributed to Aśvaghoṣa. Modern scholars still disagree on the authorship of this text.16 A Sanskrit fragment of a work attributed to him, the Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā, was discovered in Central Asia. However, a translation of this work (T 201), which is close to the Sanskrit passage, is attributed to Aśvaghoṣa. Modern scholars still disagree on the authorship of this text.16 Belief in Dharma worship and Mahayana Buddhism The role of stupa worship in the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism cannot be ignored. It is important in many Mahayana texts, including the Lotus Sutra (Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra, T 262) and the Amitabha Sutta (Sukhāvatīvyūha, T 366).17 In addition, the Mahayana concern for a saving Buddha may originated from worshiping at stupas. In Nikāya Buddhism, the Buddha is thought of as a teacher of the Dharma (Dharma). The Dharma he preaches is particularly emphasized, because if one follows it it will lead him to liberation. Regardless of how the Buddha was considered a superhuman being, he was not seen as a person capable of salvation. Instead, He is praised because He has done the hard work in the end. Nikāya Buddhism is more Dharma-focused than Buddha-centered and thus emphasizes monasticism and strict discipline. In contrast, Mahayana Buddhism is inherently concerned with lay people. The teachings for lay bodhisattvas play an important role in the oldest Mahayana sutras. It was only later that Mahayana Buddhism tended to develop into a religion in which monks held key positions. Lay people are unable to observe the precepts or devote much time to meditation and as such cannot put the Buddha's teachings into practice in the traditional ways. Instead, they must rely on the compassion of the Buddha to find their liberation. While monastic Buddhism emphasizes the teachings of the Buddha, lay Buddhism emphasizes the Buddha's role in liberation. The teachings of the Buddha's saving power emerged in response to the religious needs of lay people. Belief in Amitabha Buddha and Amitabha Buddha reflects the desire of lay people to depend on others greater than themselves. This need is reflected in the following teaching of Shakyamuni Buddha in the Lotus Sutra (Titus 9:14c): “The three realms are completely restless. They are like a house of fire, full of suffering. For domestic Buddhism, to develop doctrinal, centers are necessary places for teachers to meet disciples and thereby pass on the teachings to the next generation. If lay organizations are secondary to the Sangha, they are bound to receive and follow the instructions of the monks. Under such circumstances, any independent development of layman's doctrine would be difficult. Thus, centers independent of the control of the clergy would have existed, where one could practice, develop the doctrines exalting the Buddha, and pass these traditions on to the next generation. younger. The towers serve as such centers. The stupas are mainly for lay people. According to the Pali Mahaparinirvana Sutra, when the Buddha was about to pass away, he told the venerable Ananda that the monks and nuns did not have to worry about worshiping his relics. Instead they should "strive for the highest good (P.sadattha)". For with respect to his relics, the Buddha said that "Brahmins with deep faith and worthy householders will revere the relics (P. sarīra-pūjā) of the Tathagata".18 Later. When the Buddha passed away, the Mallas of Kuśinagara (Kuthina) held a funeral. His relics were then divided and lay people built eight stupas to worship them. Thus from the very beginning, stupas are protected, maintained and revered by lay people. According to another passage in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, there are four places that are considered sacred after the Buddha's passing. Shrines and memorial towers (cetiyas) were erected in all four of these places: his birthplace at Lumbinī, his enlightenment at Buddhagayā, his first sermon at Deer Park, and his passing away at Kuśinagara. Pilgrims soon began to admire these places. Thus, the stupa-worshipping religion was started by lay people and then mainly passed on and maintained by lay people. Even today, in Burma, pagodas are often managed by staunch lay Buddhist committees; Monks cannot participate in the management of those stupas. Pilgrims soon began to admire these places. Thus, the stupa-worshipping religion was started by lay people and then mainly passed on and maintained by lay people. Even today, in Burma, pagodas are often managed by staunch lay Buddhist committees; Monks cannot participate in the management of those stupas. Pilgrims soon began to admire these places. Thus, the stupa-worshipping religion was started by lay people and then mainly passed on and maintained by lay people. Even today, in Burma, pagodas are often managed by staunch lay Buddhist committees; Monks cannot participate in the management of those stupas. King Asoka ordered the construction of many stupas. Archaeological activities of the remains of many of the ancient stupas suggest that their oldest parts may be dated to the Asoka period. The cores of the stupas at Bhārhut, Sāñcī in Central India, and the Dharmarājikā stupa at Taxila were built around the beginning of AD. Almost all the ancient inscriptions excavated in recent times have some connection to the stupas. Although the stupas were built and maintained by lay people, and although most of the donors were lay men and women, they were not the only ones who worshiped at the stupas. The inscriptions on the pillars, barricades and roof tops at Bhārhut and Sāñcī record the names of a number of monks and nuns who made offerings to the stupas. Because monks and nuns have few assets, the donation of their property shows their profound devotion. At the beginning of the Common Era, stupas were built inside the premises of monasteries. Along these stupas, residences for monks were built, making it convenient for them to offer stupas. Viharas may have built stupas on their land in response to the growing popularity of stupa worship outside the monasteries. Evidence of this change of attitude appears in a number of sources. For example, the Vinaya of Theravada does not mention stupas even though stupas have been built within the premises of Theravada monasteries for many centuries. Apparently, the Theravada monks began making offerings at the stupas only after the Vinaya had been compiled. In contrast, the Vinaya of the Nirvana and Mahasanghikas (T 1435 and 1425) mention Buddha images, suggests that the compilation of these two Vinayas could have been completed later than the Pāli Vinaya. Thus, a number of Vinayas were compiled after monks had begun worshiping at stupas, including discussions of stupa worship. The Vinaya of the Mahasanghikas and Mahasanghikas states that a clear distinction must be maintained between property and objects that belong to the Sangha and those belonging to the stupa (T 22:498a; 23:352b). ). They cannot be used interchangeably. If a monk uses stupa property to benefit the Sangha, he is charged with the crime of pārājika (ba-la-di) for stealing. According to the Vinaya of the Dharma and the Land (T 1421 and 1428), the stupa represents the “Buddha in the Sangha.”19 Although stupas may have been built inside the vihara, objects belonging to the Buddha are separated from those belonging to the Sangha. Thus the Vinaya, the codes for the Sangha, state that the stupas are independent of the Sangha. Sources such as Vasumitra's Samayabhedoparacanacakra claim that the Dhammapada encourages donations to stupas by stating that "offering stupas produces great merit" (T 49:17a). . In contrast, the Sanghas belonging to the Mahasanghikasaka family such as the Caitika, the Aparaśaila, the Uttaraśaila, and the Mahīśāsakas assert that “offering is to be made.” towers bring little merit” (Titus 49:16a). At least four inscriptions related to the Caitika sect have been found at Amarāvatī in South India. These inscriptions can be linked to the great stupa (mahācetiya) at Amarāvatī, an important landmark in the 3rd and 4th centuries CE. Although Che da mountain said that the merit gained by making offerings at the stupas is very small, Later sources, such as the Mahavibhāā (Mahāvibhāṣā, T 1545) and the Abhidharmakośa (Abhdidharmakośa, T 1558), also suggest that offerings to the Sangha are made. The congregation produces more merit than offerings to the stupas (T 27:678b). Thus, although stupa worship is practiced within Nikāya Buddhism, Sanghas do not always coexist in harmony with stupa worship. Buddhists are generally discouraged from making offerings at stupas, suggesting that the stupa religion was introduced into sanghas some time after sanghas had been established, and that monks did not want to be seen tower worship increased in influence. Apart from the stupas inside the monasteries, there are other stupas that have no association with any of the Nikāya schools of Buddhism and they are administered by lay people. This division is evident in the many inscriptions that have been discovered by archaeologists in recent times. Most of the inscriptions related to the tower do not mention any sect.20 Flowers, incense, flags, banners, and songs are used in ceremonies associated with worshiping the tower. Even at the Buddha's funeral, the Mallas of Kuśinagara used music, incense, and flowers to honor and offer the Buddha's body before being cremated, as described in detail in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra. (DN, volume 2, p. 159). The use of singing and dancing in such a ceremony is clearly forbidden for those who live the monkhood. In the precepts for novices, monks and nuns, the use of such recreational activities is expressly prohibited. Dance, drama, architecture and other art forms conflict with the norms of the Monk life, which aim to overcome worldly constraints. Such art forms could not thrive in Buddhist temples. But they developed around stupas and later merged into Mahayana Buddhism, where they developed further. This dance tradition was later transmitted to China along with Mahayana Buddhism, and then to Japan as gigaku. The worship of the tower has a social as well as a religious aspect. It began shortly after the Buddha's death, and through the support of followers, stupa worship gradually began to flourish. Stupas were erected in different places, and worshipers and pilgrims gathered there. To build a stupa, one has to offer land. Because the land is dedicated for religious purposes, it is not owned by any particular individual. In addition to the tower, a temporary place for worshipers, a well and a swimming pool were also built in that land. These vehicles are the property of the tower. A path around the stupa was constructed so that pilgrims could pray as they circled the stupa. There is a fence with gates surrounding this area. The carvings on the railings and gates of the stupa illustrate events from the Buddha's biography as well as the good deeds and selfless deeds he performed in past lives. Those who specialized in explaining Jatāka stories and biographies of the Buddha to those who came to worship, as well as those who arranged lodging for pilgrims, may have lived at the stupa. A religious organization begins to take shape.21 Because stupas have property, one must be there to manage it. Gold, silver, flowers, incense and food must have been offered by devotees and pilgrims. Although these gifts are offered to the Buddha, it is clear that the stupa keepers receive and use them. These people are very different from ordinary lay people, but they also may not be members of the Sangha. They are religious experts who are neither lay people nor monks. When these religious experts repeatedly interpreted the Jatāka illustrations and biographies of Shakyamuni Buddha, they extolled the Buddha's practices in past lives as that of a bodhisattva. slap and praise His greatness and vast compassion. Gradually they developed theories explaining the Buddha's power to save others. In this way, they attracted more devotees to the stupa. The worship at the stupas may have led to the meditation of the Buddha image. Even today, we can see Tibetan pilgrims at Buddhagayā prostrating hundreds of times in front of the stupa. Long before that, when people practiced such things over and over again while sincerely thinking of the Buddha, they could enter into a kind of concentration (samādhi) in which the Buddha appeared before them. This type of concentration is similar to the pratyutpanna-samādhi described in the Mahayana texts. Thus, the types of Mahayana concentration in which the Buddha is visualized may have originated in the religious experiences of those who worshiped the Buddha at the stupas. Such religious experiences can lead people to develop the belief that they are bodhisattvas. In conclusion, the establishment of stupas and accumulation of wealth around them led groups of religious experts to live near the stupas. These people formed organizations and began to develop doctrines related to the saving power of the Buddha. Mentions in many Mahayana sutras of stupa worship indicate the central role these organizations played in the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism. In some Mahayana texts, a group of Bodhisattvas (boddhisattvagaṇa) is mentioned to exist separately from the Sangha of the Nikāya schools (śrāvakasṅgha).22 Boddhisattvagaṇa may have its origin in groups of practitioners. at the towers. However, the origin of the advocates of Prajna literature must be sought in other fields.END=NAM MO SHAKYAMUNI BUDDHA.( 3 TIMES ).GOLDEN AMITABHA MONASTERY=VIETNAMESE BUDDHIST NUN=THICH CHAN TANH.AUSTRALIA,SYDNEY.24/5/2021.