Origin of the Pure Land in India according to the ancient sutra Sukhāvatīvyūha.VIETNAMESE TRANSLATE ENGLISH BY=VIETNAMESE BUDDHIST NUN=THE WOMEN OF THE SAKYA CLAN CHAN TANH. The Roots of Pure Land Buddhism in India: Reviews from the Oldest Chinese Translations of the Great Sukhāvatīvyūha Masatoshi Nagatomi is a thinker with broad knowledge. Raised in a Pure Land Shinsh (Jōdo Shinshū/浄土真宗) family, he chose the distant Buddhist world of India as his field of study. Educated at Kyoto University, he went on to complete his doctorate at Harvard University, also spending time studying in India. When studying Indian Buddhist literature, he can use analogies from East Asia; when discussing Buddhist rituals in China, he could rely on his knowledge of Tibet. In short, for him, Buddhism is not a regional or sectarian entity but a global and multifaceted tradition, and not a single student of his is not impressed with his broad vision. . Most people who study Pure Land Buddhism, by contrast, have approached their subject within a narrower framework. Generally, this form of Buddhism has been viewed as an East Asian phenomenon, and indeed it is often studied within the confines of a single school or sect. Here this article is seen as a small attempt to emulate Professor Nagatomi's extensive intercultural insight into the history of Buddhism by examining the evidence for Pure Land Buddhism not in East Asia, but in India. However, to understand how Indian Buddhists conceived Amitabha Buddha requires to begin with an outline of the circumstances in which the scriptures devoted to this Buddha appeared. I will therefore begin with a brief description of some of the key developments that predate the texts devoted to Amitabha. * * * Early Indian Buddhism, which we should best reconstruct from extant sources, was a "single vehicle" religion. The vehicle in this regard is of course not the "one vehicle " (Sanskrit: ekayāna ) found in texts such as the Lotus Flower , where the Buddha introduces three distinct paths to liberation, although only one vehicle - and the bodhisattva's path to Buddhahood - is the ultimate truth. In contrast, the "only way" advocated in early Buddhism is the Arahant path, a path practiced by all who aspire to the Buddha's teachings. This path is believed to lead to Nirvana, the final liberation from samsara, and it is this liberation that was attained by Buddha Shakyamuni. However, this does not mean that Shakyamuni Buddha is not considered superior to his disciples. But what is considered special about him, in this early age, is not his enlightened qualities, not even his compassion. What only the Buddha had was the fact that he was the first person to have discovered the way out of samsara by himself, without the help of an enlightened seer. Like a grammarian describing a previously unknown language, Shakyamuni Buddha's explanation of the path to Nirvana made it somewhat easier for his followers to attain. In summary, it is clear that in the early days of Buddhism, the enlightenment experienced by Shakyamuni Buddha was understood as a model that his disciples tried to follow. The fact that Shakyamuni Buddha is described, Early Mahayana in India: The Bodhisattva's Path However, perhaps a century or two B.C.E., the gap between descriptions of Buddhahood and arahantship began to widen. More specifically, when the Buddha was described in noble terms, the status of arahants, whether present or past, began to decline. In such a situation, it can be said that arahantship is a lower spiritual goal, less subtle than the full and ultimate enlightenment of a Buddha. Not surprisingly, as the status of arahants decreased, some Buddhists began to consider the possibility of choosing a higher goal: attaining Buddhahood instead of just being Arahant. -la-han fruit. By re-enacting in detail the path that the Bodhisattva, who became Shakyamuni Buddha, walked - not only in his last life but in countless previous lives - a special practitioner can succeed in becoming a Buddha himself who saves the world. He will then not only experience the supreme enlightenment of a Buddha, but will also help countless others to attain Nirvana, as did Shakyamuni Buddha. The basis for this view is not only the increasingly elevated position of the Buddha, but the traditional view that "all dharmas are impermanent" - a category that Buddhist thinkers, with admirable consistency tomb, included Buddhism in it. While the truths embodied in the Buddha's teachings are of course seen as an expression of the nature of things as they are ( dharmatā).) and as such remain unaltered, the Buddhadharma (presented in human language) and the Sangha (understood as a community built by humans) are both considered subject to change. Most importantly, the life span of any sentient being – including a fully enlightened Buddha – is considered finite. So after Shakyamuni Buddha passed away (as was the case with other Buddhas before him), the memory of his life and his teachings would then disappear, just the moment it happened. With this in mind, it is clear why Buddhists come to believe that at least one disciple of each Buddha should not only strive for the attainment of Nirvana, but must aspire to become a Buddha himself. If the future Buddha Maitreya had not done so, when Shakyamuni Buddha's Dharma finally disappeared, it would never be found again. In the biography of Shakyamuni Buddha himself, the story of his vows being made in the presence of the ancient Buddha Dīpaṇkara has become a model for what is expected of a future Buddha. However, other Jātaka stories show that the path to Buddhahood is not easy, as they include stories about bodhisattvas (i.e. stories about Shakyamuni Buddha before he attained Buddhahood). result) giving up not only one's possessions and family but also parts of one's body and even one's own life. In a widely circulated predecessor story, the future Buddha was chopped to pieces by an angry king; In another story, He offered himself to a hungry mother tiger and her cubs to eat meat. There is no miraculous deliverance in these two stories, and the future Buddha has passed away. However, he gained much merit in these deeds. To ordinary Buddhists, the Jātaka stories seem to depict the greatness of Shakyamuni Buddha. But for the very few who, in the early days of "three vehicle" Buddhism, chose to become Bodhisattvas, the Jatakas also serve a different purpose, since they can be read like a book. The manual is filled with specific instructions on the deeds of Buddha that they should follow. In the light of the bitter challenges that a future bodhisattva will have to endure throughout countless kalpas, it is clear that the path to Buddhahood is not easy. In fact, it requires more rigor than the pursuit of arahantship. It is therefore no exaggeration to say that the bodhisattva's career, which was first entered into by the pioneers, was considered suitable only for "the few people with the confidence and fortitude." .” One Community, Two Directions: Problems with the Bodhisattva Ideal The early Mahayana scriptures often talk about the " three vehicles ": the vehicle of the shravaka ( Śrāvaka-yāna ), the vehicle of the Pratyekabuddha-yāna , and the vehicle of the bodhisattva ( Boddhisattva-yāna ). Although there is considerable overlap in the practices practiced by members of these three vehicles, they are seen as three distinct paths leading to three distinct ends: arahantship, pratyekabuddhas Chi Buddha, and Buddha fruit (in ascending order). Of these three options, there is no evidence that members of Buddhist communities actually choose to practice the path that leads to Pratyekabuddha (or Paccekabuddha). In contrast, there is considerable evidence that at the beginning of the A.D., a small number of monks, most likely belonging to several different lineages ( nikāya-s ), chose to dedicate their lives to the attainment of Buddhahood. . Most of their fellow monks, however, remained single-mindedly following the traditional arahant path, and the introduction of the new bodhisattva ideal seemed to have brought with it some problems. Some Buddhists seem to have rejected the possibility that Buddhists can become Bodhisattvas in the present; others question the legitimacy of this "new vehicle", because it was not introduced by the Buddha in the texts preserved in the traditional Tripitaka. And the status of the new texts is called the Mahayana sutras ( Mahāyāna sutra .).) still caused a controversy for centuries, with many Indian Buddhists not considering it to be the word of the Buddha ( Buddhavacana ). In addition to questions regarding the legitimacy of this new path and the scriptures recommending it, the bodhisattvas faced another potential problem of disagreement: the question of social status. Those who follow the path to Buddhahood are striving for a goal that is generally welcomed as the noblest of spiritual destinations, yet most of the monks who are with the This early bodhisattva was content with the lower attainment of arahantship. One can imagine the tensions they can create in Buddhist communities where the choice of an individual or a small group to become a bodhisattva instead of a shravaka has inaugurated a division. spiritual path into two levels. I think, In addition to such challenges, all of which relate to the problems of Sangha life, there are also difficulties that each practitioner faces, problems that have their roots in the very structure of the path. Bodhisattva. First are the difficulties it is sure to cause: rebirth in samsara ( sa ṃsara ) is said to be fraught with suffering even under the best of circumstances, but practitioners aiming for buddhahood also suffer Specific suffering is described in the Jātaka stories . We can picture a bodhisattva hesitant when he considers the fact that - as presented in many of these stories - he will inevitably be dismembered and killed in the next life. In addition to the difficult life-sacrificing actions that characterize the bodhisattva path, there is also the issue of time. While Arahantship, at least in theory, can be achieved in this very life, Buddhahood takes a longer time to attain. The standard descriptions of the bodhisattva path (both in Mahayana and non-Mahayana texts) claim that it takes an unimaginable amount of time – the common number being “three aeons.” ( asa ṃkhyeyakalpa ) and one hundred aeons ( māhākalpa )” – to attain the number of merits ( pu ya ) and wisdom ( jñāna) necessary for becoming a Buddha. What this means is to spend thousands if not millions of lives in samsara, instead of pursuing the possibility of experiencing the bliss of Nirvana in this very lifetime. Of course, both merit and wisdom can best be achieved in the presence of a Buddha, for by serving and making offerings to such a being can create great merit; and by listening to his teachings, we can quickly gain the wisdom needed to teach the dharma in our future lives. However, in our world system, since Shakyamuni Buddha's parinirvana, no Buddha has been present to serve as the "field of merit" (or "field of wisdom") for believers. thing. Thus, the bodhisattvas had to accept practice slowly, over kalpas, in order to gradually accumulate the two prerequisites for buddhahood. In addition to the amount of time it takes to achieve these prerequisites for Buddhahood, another problem - what we might call a structural problem or even a cosmological problem - is also raised. In early Buddhism (and indeed, for most Mahayana followers throughout its history in India), it is clear that in one world, only one Buddha appeared at one time. time. It is also acknowledged that the appearance of a Buddha is extremely rare, and as such there is an interval between the appearance of a Buddha in question and the next. For example, between the Nirvana of Buddha Shakyamuni and the appearance of Maitreya is said to be about 5.6 billion years (560 million years according to other texts). Not only must a bodhisattva have to continue his practice through this long period of time without the support of a Buddhist community, he must also wait until Maitreya attains Buddhahood. fruition, and after his Nirvana, the disappearance of all his teachings. Only then – when the memory of Buddhism has been forgotten for a long time – does the next Bodhisattva attain enlightenment. In short, the time extension that separates the ordinary bodhisattva from his or her eventual attainment of Buddhahood is immeasurable. And as the number of devotees vowing to follow the path leading to Buddhahood is increasing, the wait for a particular bodhisattva is getting longer and longer. Only then – when the memory of Buddhism has been forgotten for a long time – does the next Bodhisattva attain enlightenment. In short, the time extension that separates the ordinary bodhisattva from his or her eventual attainment of Buddhahood is immeasurable. And as the number of devotees vowing to follow the path leading to Buddhahood is increasing, the wait for a particular bodhisattva is getting longer and longer. Only then – when the memory of Buddhism has been forgotten for a long time – does the next Bodhisattva attain enlightenment. In short, the time extension that separates the ordinary bodhisattva from his or her eventual attainment of Buddhahood is immeasurable. And as the number of devotees vowing to follow the path leading to Buddhahood is increasing, the wait for a particular bodhisattva is getting longer and longer. To sum up, on the one hand, the bodhisattvas have come across a very attractive ideal - the ideal of becoming a great hero who can rediscover the Dharma in the future for the benefit of all sentient beings. – on the other hand, they face a daunting amount of time and fulfillment requirements. Hence in the early Mahayana scriptures many methods of practice are given, from attaining a certain type of concentration ( samādhi ) to reciting a sutra, to contemplating the world from the point of view of the Eightfold Path. the perfection of wisdom ( prajñāpāramitā ), which will enable the bodhisattva to "quickly (Sanskrit: kṣipram; Chinese: 速/speed) attain Buddhahood." Other Buddhas, Other Worlds: New Perspectives on the Buddhist Cosmos However, around the beginning of the C.E., a new perspective arose in India that radically changed this understanding of the bodhisattva path. Some bodhisattvas, after emerging from deep meditation, recounted stories of things they had experienced, of a universe much larger than previously thought. They assert, there are other world systems like ours in all ten directions, and each world system has its own gods and people. However, what is most important to bodhisattvas is the information given that, in some of these world systems, there are buddhas who are currently living and teaching. Thus, while our world system currently lacks a Buddha (although the Dharma is still present and being received), other Buddhas are said to be present, even where world systems lie millions of light-years away from ours (in modern scientific parlance). These new views thus indicate that we may be able to meet a Buddha in the near future – indeed in the very next life – through his national birth. That this view of the existence of "the buddhas of the ten directions" is not the result of scholastic study but the result of profound meditative experience is fully attested in the Mahayana sutras. But what is particularly remarkable is that this new view of the universe seems to have emerged not in the shravakas who practice traditional meditation but in those who aspire to follow the bodhisattva path. In other words, this view seems to have been established by the Buddhists themselves that they need to gain the most merit and wisdom in the presence of a living Buddha to accelerate their progress towards their destination. These discovered worlds, at least at first, are not referred to as "Pure Lands" (in fact, the term seems to have been of East Asia, not of India). And there's no question how much more fascinating these world systems are than ours. In fact, their characteristics are often compared with those of the heavens in the Buddhist tradition, a fact which it has shown has made them an attractive destination even for the unsuspecting. aspire to become bodhisattvas. The Beginnings of Pure Land Buddhism: The Eastern Bliss of Akṣobhya One of the earliest suttas that still expounds on this point in detail is the Ak obhyavyūha (Buddha Country's Ascetic Sutra), which describes the work of a bodhisattva whose intense ascetic practice which leads to becoming the Buddha Asoka. According to the Ak obhyavyūha Sutta , after a long period of preparation, the person who later became an Ascetic Buddha left home and performed strict austerities, and then he attained Buddhahood in a distant world. to the East of our world. This world, called Abhirati, has a number of characteristics described in the Ak obhyavyūha Sutta.as a by-product of the practice of the bodhisattva path of Buddha Asoka: the climate is pleasant, food and drink are abundant and easy to obtain; women and their babies are free from suffering or pollution during pregnancy and childbirth. But most of all: The Kingdom of Joy is an ideal place to advance on the Buddhist path, because it is extremely easy to attain Arahantship there. Some practitioners attain enlightenment the first time they hear the Buddha preach; others need four times to hear the sermon to attain Nirvana, progressing step by step through the four stages of Sainthood, from stream-enterer to arahant. This clearly shows that Arahantship is within the reach of everyone born in the Country of Joy. The bodhisattvas were also able to progress rapidly to Buddhahood in the presence of Asoka, however none have been described as having achieved their goal in his kingdom. In contrast, the text repeats the doctrine that each bodhisattva must perform for many aeons all the ascetic practices that the Buddha (in this case, Akshobhya) performed before becoming a Buddha. . Only in his last life, when a bodhisattva is born into his world system, will he attain perfect, ultimate wisdom ( anuttarasamyaksa ṃbodhi ) and become the presiding Buddha there. The views expressed in the Ak obhyavyūhasuch belong to a relatively early period of Mahayana Buddhism in India, as Buddhahood is presented as a spiritual option for some, but not for all. The understanding of Buddhahood found in this sutta is also purely traditional, as the life of Buddha Asoka - although longer than that of Shakyamuni Buddha - is clearly modeled on the biography of Shakyamuni Buddha in India. in the canon. Like Shakyamuni Buddha, at the end of his long teaching career, Ashoka entered Nirvana without residue. And again like Shakyamuni Buddha, Akshobhya prophesies to his next, a bodhisattva named Gandhahastin, who will attain Buddhahood at an unspecified time after Ashoka's extinction. After becoming a Buddha named "Golden Lotus", The Ak ṣobhyavyūha then describes an issue that is in many respects entirely traditional. The mission of a Buddha - as it was in the time of Shakyamuni Buddha - is to lead his followers to arahantship, although some may choose to pursue the path to Buddhahood. The appearance of a Buddha is still relatively rare, and a Buddha (like an Arahant) inevitably enters Nirvana without residue at the end of his or her last life. Then his prophesied successor would give birth, re-open the Buddhadharma, and in turn lead his followers to Nirvana. Buddha Asoka is reported by Shakyamuni Buddha in the Ak ṣobhyavyūha Sutta to be living and preaching in the present time - that is, at the time of Shakyamuni Buddha's lecture on the Joyful Country. However, this does not violate the main principle (found in early Buddhism and still recognized in the period of "Three Vehicle Buddhism") that there is only one Buddha in a world system. stay at a time. For Akshobhya's kingdom of happiness does not lie within our world system, but on the contrary is located far to the East, comprising a complete world system with its own heavens (although is said to have no hells, hungry ghosts and animals there). Thus, we can restate this principle, as understood in texts such as Akṣobhyavyūha , that there is only one Buddha in one world system at a time. While there cannot be another Buddha in our world until Shakyamuni Buddha's teachings have perished and are rediscovered in the distant future by his successor, Maitreya Buddha. Maitreya), the appearance of other Buddhas in the present without any hindrance, whenever they are in other world systems in the universe. Such a view, which was eventually extended to refer to the Buddhas currently living and preaching in all the ten directions, considerably shortens the length of time a Buddhist practitioner spends in the world. reincarnation before meeting a Buddha again. The requirements for being born in the Land of Joy also seem to be entirely traditional, for - as in the case of the Buddhist heavens, where almost every characteristic of the Land of Joy is clearly emulated - must have great merit. On the contrary, however, there is no requirement that the meditator must perform special reverence towards Akshobhya in order to secure his rebirth there. Furthermore, as is the case in many other Buddhist heavens, a person who has made enough merit in this life simply realizes that, after passing away in this world, he will be reborn in the land of the Buddha. A Suc. In summary, the story described in the Ak ṣobhyavyūha is clearly the story of the traditional biography of Shakyamuni Buddha: After many lifetimes of diligent practice, Ashoka attained Buddhahood, which he then preached to immeasurables. followers and help them achieve Arahantship. However, the biography of Buddha Asoka differs from that of the historical Shakyamuni Buddha in that his Sangha also includes Bodhisattvas who will eventually attain Buddhahood instead of Arahants. - drought. However, they did not attain Buddhahood in the Land of Joy, because in the worldview presented in the Ak obhyavyūha Sutta., the view that there is only one Buddha in one world system at a time is still valid. Such bodhisattva disciples of Buddha Asoka must wait for their turn, born into worlds ignorant of Buddhism, to attain their final enlightenment. One of these future Buddhas is of particular interest: the Bodhisattva Gandhahastin, who received the prophecy from Buddha Asoka and thus became his "successor", and this bodhisattva would attain enlightenment. Buddhahood only after Buddha Ashoka passed away. To sum up, the story of Asoka represents an important continuation of the biographical story of Shakyamuni Buddha, except that in his world there are characteristics such as the heavens, the long lifespan of living beings. there, and easily attained arahantship in his presence. When reading the accounts presented in the Ak obhyavyūha sutta , it is easy to see that the description of such a character may have evolved step by step from the canonical accounts of the lives of Buddha Shakyamuni himself. . From Buddha to Amitabha: The Development of Pure Land Thought In contrast, the texts describing the career of Amitabha are generally considered by modern Buddhists to present a much different matter. Amitabha Buddha's life span is said to be immeasurable (as indicated by his own other name, Amitāyus), and birth in his land is considered (especially in the Pure Land of Shinto) not due to Our blessings are thanks to the grace of Amitabha Buddha. All practitioners are classified as "Bodhisattvas," while the possibility of arahantship - whether in the realm of Ultimate Bliss or elsewhere - is no longer visible. Furthermore, the understanding of the bodhisattva's career differs significantly from the extremely severe ascetic path described in the Jataka stories.and is included in the early Mahayana sutras. The bodhisattva path is no longer seen as suitable only for the few who are brave enough to perform fierce austerities; on the contrary, it is now considered attainable for all, and such qualities as showing gratitude to Amitabha and compassion for other sentient beings – instead of leaving home and accepting death at the hands of cruel kings and hungry tigers – brought to the fore. Finally, the notion that the thousands (if not millions) of lifetimes required to attain Buddhahood also disappeared. The fact that such a view is so different from that of early Buddhism - and indeed, from the worldview expressed in relatively early Mahayana texts such as the Ak obhyavyūha - has made a Some critics question whether such "Pure Land" beliefs should be considered purely Buddhist. Some have invoked foreign influence (especially Iran) or the influence of local views (especially Hinduism) to explain what appears to be a radical shift away from from mainstream Buddhism. However, the content of the Ak ṣobhyavyūha . sutraas described above suggests that there is a historical course much different from what some have thought. Specifically, it points to the possibility that Pure Land Buddhism emerged gradually within the Buddhist communities themselves rather than the product of external factors absorbed from the outside. But can the scriptures related to Amitabha Buddha say that? This is what we are going to aim for now. The Emergence of the Amitabha Tradition: The Great Sutra of Sukhāvatīvyūha Buddha Asoka – although there is solid evidence that he was an important figure in early Mahayana India – is relatively little known today. He is primarily considered the Buddha of the East in some tantric texts. In contrast, the Buddha Amitabha (Amitābha) or Amitayus (Amitāyus) has been the object of worship of countless East Asian Buddhists for centuries. Mentions of Amitabha appear in a series of suttas compiled in India, some mainly devoted to this Buddha and others where he appeared only briefly. There is therefore no need to ask whether Amitabha Buddha is one of the most famous figures in the entire history of Buddhism. Did the followers of Amitabha in India put together a collection of scriptures as a "Tibetan Sutra on Amitabha" that we are not aware of? However,The Sukhāvatīvyūha , popularly known as the Great Sukhāvatīvyūha and the Minor Sukhāvatīvyūha , and the third known in the West by a reconstruction of the Sanskrit title as the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra . Of these, the third - the Buddha's Sutra of Infinite Life/佛說觀無量壽佛經 (Japanese: Kan Muryōjubutsu kyō; Taishō, vol. 12, no. 365) - is now generally regarded as an apocetic work. compiled in China (or even in Central Asia, although the evidence for this is extremely weak). In contrast, the two Sukhāvatīvyūha texts are considered authentic works in India, and indeed both are among the non-Theravada canon preserved in an Indian language. Since our interest in this article is to try to understand the emergence of the Amitabha faith in India, only the following two texts are considered here. In East Asia, of course, these two texts are read not in Sanskrit but in Chinese, and indeed some Chinese translations of these two works date several centuries earlier than the extant Sanskrit manuscripts. . The earliest Chinese translation of the Sukhāvatīvyūha (Amitabha Sutra, 阿彌陀經) appeared in the 5th century BC, when the famous Kushan translator Kumārajīva made a translation. translation titled Amitabha Sutra (Japanese: Amida kyō; Taishō, vol. 12, no.366). This sutta is mainly devoted to describing the characteristics of the Land of Ultimate Bliss, and contains relatively little information about Amitabha himself. It is in the Great Sukhāvatīvyūha that we find the most detailed description of Amitabha's career, beginning with his first determination to attain Buddhahood while he was still a bodhisattva. called the Dharma Store (Dharmākara). The most widely used translation in East Asia, the Sutra of Infinite Life (無量壽經; Japanese Muryōju kyō; Taishō, vol. 12, no. 360), is attributed to the third century monk Jiang Zengkai (康僧)鎧/Saṃghavarman) translated in late medieval Chinese catalogs, an attribution followed by the editors of Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō . However, this attribution does not stand up to scholarly research. Based on information found in earlier canonical catalogs (especially the Tripitaka volume / 出三藏記集 of Tang Huu in the early VI century CE; Taishō, vol. 55, no. 2145), most scholars now attribute this translation to Buddha-da-Bat-dala (仏陀跋陀羅/Buddhabhadra) and Bao Vân/寶雲, two active translators in the early 5th century. Thus, the most popular Chinese version of the Great Sutta Sukhāvatīvyūha (the Sutra of Infinite Life ) is thought to date back to about the same time as Kumarajiva's translation of the Sukhāvatīvyūha Minor . However, there are two Chinese translations of the Sukhāvatīvyūha that are considerably earlier. The first version with a lengthy and unwieldy title was the Buddha's theory of Amitabha's teachings , the Buddha's theory of the Buddha's slaps, the Buddha's slap- dash, the human sutra (佛說阿彌陀三耶三佛薩樓佛檀過度人道經; Japanese: Amida- san'yasambutsu sarubutsudan-kadonindō-kyō , often shortened to Dai amida kyō ; Taishō, vol. 12, no. 362), performed by Chi-long-ca-thunder (支婁迦讖/Lokakṣema; Japanese: Shi Rukasen) at the end of the 2nd century CE. Another translation, translated by Chi Khiem (Japanese: Shiken) in the early to mid- 3rd century AD , is the Buddhist doctrine of immeasurable purity, equality of enlightenment (佛說無量清淨平等覺經; Japanese: Muryōshōjōbyōdōgaku-kyō); Taishō, vol. 12, no. 361). Not only are these two Chinese translations earlier than the one preserved in the Muryōjukyō , but their contents make it clear that their translators were drafting an earlier period than the Indian text itself. Therefore, in the following section, I will focus on these two earlier Chinese translations, as they provide the best means of entering the early traditions of Amitabha in India. In most respects, these two translations are quite similar, so I will consider them in connection here. All references given below to the Great Sukhāvatīvyūha , unless otherwise stated, refer to two somewhat different Indian revisions reflected in these early Chinese texts. As in the Ak ṣobhyavyūha , the Great Sukhāvatīvyūha begins with an encounter between a Buddha and a monk. In the Ak ṣobhyavyūha Sutta , inspired by the greatness of a Buddha named "Great Eye" (the Sanskrit word for this name is unknown), the future Akshobhya resolved to become a Buddha. In contrast, in the Great Sutta Sukhāvatīvyūha, it was in the presence of Buddha Lokeśvararāja that the future Amitabha Buddha, while still a monk named Phap Tang, set out his search goal. At this point in the story, however, we can clearly see an important difference in perspective between the two texts. The "Great Eye" Buddha initially tried to prevent his young disciple from becoming a bodhisattva, pointing out that the path to Buddhahood was indeed difficult. In contrast, in the Great Sutta Sukhāvatīvyūha , the Buddha World Resilience King does not dissuade the Dharma Store from fulfilling its purpose, and says nothing about the difficulty of the bodhisattva path. In other words, for the author of Ak ṣobhyavyūha, the bodhisattva path is a challenging (really discouraging) choice for Buddhist practitioners; conversely, for the author of the Sukhāvatīvyūha , such a choice seems a matter of necessity. This distinction is emphasized when we consider the content of the vows of these two bodhisattvas, for in the Ak ṣobhyavyūha Sutta , the future Ashoka vows to perform ascetic practices in his next life. The beauty of the Country of Joy is presented as a by-product he obtained by performing these deeds, not the result of a contrived plan. In contrast, in the Great Sutta Sukhāvatīvyūha, the vows of the Fa-zhang (here there are only 24, as opposed to the 48 found in the 5th-century translation) mainly deal with the characteristics of his future Buddha-country in ways by which His followers will be born. In summary, the vows of the future Asoka deal with the traditional elements of the bodhisattva path, while the vows of the future Amitabha focus on creating a "Pure Land" realm. ". A second difference between these two texts can be seen in the ways in which Buddhist practitioners are born into these two blissful worlds. In the Ak ṣobhyavyūha Sutta , as we have seen, being born in the Land of Joy is not the result of reverence for the Buddha Asoka, but the result of having sufficient merit. In contrast, in the Great Sukhāvatīvyūha , knowing about Amitabha and keeping his name in mind plays a central role. In other words, birth in the Land of Joy (like being born in other Buddhist heavens) is achieved through one's own merit, and it doesn't even require awareness of the existence of Buddha Asoka himself. . In contrast, in the Great Sutta SukhāvatīvyūhaThe birth of Amitabha Buddha's world involved knowing him and by relying on recitation of his name, which later became the popular belief about Amitabha in East Asia. Third, both male and female, as we have seen, can be born in the Kingdom of Joy. In fact, those born there are born to mothers (although not having sex is a prerequisite). In contrast, in the two earliest translations of the Great Sutra Sukhāvatīvyūha, stating that all those born there are male. In the translation of Chi-lou-ca-thunder, the absence of the woman in the Land of Ultimate Bliss is expressed in the second vow of the Dharma Store; In Chi Khiem's ​​translation, such a statement is found elsewhere in the text. However, in both translations of these sutras, it is clear that the original Mahayana view that one must be born as a man before becoming a Buddha has been generalized to include all inhabitants as well. of the Land of Ultimate Bliss. Since there is no female presence in the realm of Ultimate Bliss, birth cannot take place in the usual way, and in fact we are told that all the inhabitants born there are born inside a lotus flower. None of those born in Ultimate Bliss is a bodhisattva, while (as in the Ak ṣobhyavyūha sutta ) there are many mentions of the presence of arahants in Amitabha's world. Again, the fact that they are mentioned as arahants (and not just shravakas on their way to arahantship) makes it clear that the realm of Ultimate Bliss is viewed, at least of the texts reflected in these two early translations, is the best place for achieving this end. The Ak ṣobhyavyūha and the Sukhāvatīvyūha also agree that a world system is ruled by only one Buddha. In fact, for readers familiar with later Pure Land traditions, the most striking passage in Chi- lo -ca's translation of the Sukhāvatīvyūha is the passage that describes how, after Buddha A. When Amitabha passes away, Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara will continue his position. After Avalokitesvara's extinction, Mahasthamaprapta's turn will continue to play the role of the Buddha. In other words, in this initial revision of the Great Sutta Sukhāvatīvyūha, we can see that the basic principle that Amitabha Buddha must pass away before his successor (in this case, Avalokitesvara) can become a Buddha is still in full force. Again, there is no mention here of any of Amitabha's disciples attaining Buddhahood while he was present, while there are many mentions of arahants in his world. Sir. In sum, at this early stage in the Great Sukhāvatīvyūha , the thread connects Amitabha's story with earlier views on the path to Buddhahood (including those found in The Ak ṣobhyavyūha sutta ) is still quite clear. Now, with the foregoing remarks as a basis, as we look to the version of the Sukhāvatīvyūha which is most famous in East Asia, we may notice a number of developments that separate it into two. earlier translation (whichever is based on earlier Indian revisions) of this sutta. First of all, references to arahants (or shravakas on the way to arahantship) have become less common, while descriptions of their characteristics have become less common. Bodhisattvas in Amitabha's world appear a lot. In fact, the authors of the revisionists of the Great Sukhāvatīvyūha seem to understand the bodhisattva path as something that is attainable by everyone, a point of view far different from that expressed in the Ak sutta. obhyavyūhaor the point of view in the earlier Chinese translations of the Sukhāvatīvyūha . Second, the saying that everyone born in the Land of Ultimate Bliss must become a man has disappeared, a development that is consistent with the universalization of the bodhisattva path. Third, although Avalokiteshvara and Dai Shizhi are still present, their roles now appear to be blurred, and there is no clear mention of inheriting Amitabha's role as Buddha. governing after Amitabha Buddha passed away. Fourth - and certainly the most significant - there is absolutely no mention of Amitabha's passing away, a fact which has led commentators over the centuries to conclude that He is truly immortal. It should be noted that there are still some features in the Infinite Life Sutrawhich are similar to earlier interpretations of the Pure Land. First, the shravakas are still occasionally mentioned, although their role is clearly decreasing. Second, although the text contains descriptions of bodhisattvas in the realm of Ultimate Bliss, it never says that any of them will actually become a Buddha while Amitabha is present. facets, thus following the law of “there is only one Buddha in each world system at a time” discussed above. Finally, although the text no longer mentions Amitabha's passing away (while conversely, it refers to his immeasurable longevity, as well as the immeasurable lifespan of his inhabitants). in His realm), it never asserts that He is immortal. Thus the view that all sentient beings - including all living Buddhas - must eventually pass away, In summary, by reading the early and late translations of the Great Sukhāvatīvyūha in connection, we can see a clear progression: From the translations of the Ak ṣobhyavyūha and the Sukhāvatīvyūha (recorded by Chi-long-ca). -Thunder and Chi Khiem performed in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE) to the 5th century translations of Buddhabhadra and Bao Van. By placing these translations in their chronological order, we can thus clearly see the gradual emergence of the Amitabha faith within Indian Buddhism. Conclusion: The emergence of Pure Land Buddhism in India Based on the above reviewed literature, it is clear that there is no need to resort to "foreign influences" or "non-Buddhist borrowings" to explain the emergence of the Amitabha faith in India. India. On the contrary, we can see this emergence of faith as the result of an ongoing process taking place within the Buddhist community itself. More specifically, we can see views of other Buddhas and other worlds as a solution to the difficulties inherent in realizing the bodhisattva path as understood in the early Mahayana. period. With the introduction of the concept of other Buddhas who are now living and teaching elsewhere in the universe – first Ashoka in the East, then Amitabha in the West, and later countless Buddhas in the ten directions – vast new horizons opened up for Indian Buddhists. Bodhisattvas do not have to wait for the appearance of Maitreya Buddha anymore before they can finally achieve their goal. The vastly expanded universe seen in these new sutras raises the possibility that one could be reborn in a world where there is currently a Buddha. Summary, Reading these suttas in conjunction, we can also see that the popularity of the Amitabha faith may surpass that of the Asoka. The world of Ashoka, while utterly fascinating, is still difficult to reach; one needs much merit, and there is nothing in the Ak ṣobhyavyūha that suggests that birth there is guaranteed. In contrast, in the Sukhāvatīvyūha (both early and late revisions), Amitabha's ability to reach the world is presented with relative ease, a development that paved the way for a well-established view. As explained later by Than Loan, the birth in the Pure Land was due solely to the grace of Amitabha Buddha. Where the descriptive light is conveyed in the Great Sutra SukhāvatīvyūhaSuch ordinary Buddhists can place their faith in the certainty of meeting Amitabha Buddha after his death. Such followers are described as "Bodhisattvas," in connection with entirely new developments in the concept of what a bodhisattva is, a fact that is particularly evident in the Infinite Life Sutta . Since these Pure Land concepts make the prospect of becoming a bodhisattva less difficult, they pave the way for the far-reaching generalization of the One Vehicle doctrine set forth in the Lotus Sutra and other Buddhist teachings. There are other texts according to which the bodhisattva path is suitable for all Buddhists, men and women as well as children. Thus, in one sense, one can see Japanese Buddhism today - which, regardless of sect, takes the view found in the Lotus Sutra as a central explanatory framework, that "The One Vehicle “is suitable for all.END=NAM MO SHAKYAMUNI BUDDHA.( 3 TIMES ).BUDDHIST DHARMA WHEEL GOLDEN MONASTERY=VIETNAMESE BUDDHIST NUN=THE WOMEN OF THE SAKYA CLAN CHAN TANH.AUSTRALIA,SYDNEY.6/10/2021.